Kant

Synopsis

Kant is arguably the most influential modern philosopher, but also one of the most difficult. In this short introduction Roger Scruton tackles Kant's exceptionally complex subject with a strong hand, exploring the background to his work.

Summary

Chapter 1: The Foundations of Morality

* Kant argues that morality is based on reason and should not be derived from personal desires or external authorities.
* Example: A person who lies to save a friend from harm may be motivated by their emotions, but according to Kant, their action is not moral because it contradicts the universal law that one should never lie.

Chapter 2: The Categorical Imperative

* Kant formulates the Categorical Imperative as a principle that guides moral actions. The first formulation states that one should act only on a maxim that can be universalized as a moral law.
* Example: A rule that allows for killing in self-defense can be universalized because it applies equally to all people in similar situations.

Chapter 3: The Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative

* The second formulation states that one should treat humanity, both in others and oneself, always as an end and never as a means only.
* Example: Exploiting a person for financial gain violates this principle because it treats them as a mere tool rather than as a person with intrinsic worth.

Chapter 4: The Good Will

* Kant argues that the only thing that is good without qualification is a good will. A good will is one that is motivated by duty and reason, rather than self-interest or external rewards.
* Example: A person who donates to charity out of genuine compassion has a good will, while a person who donates to gain social recognition does not.

Chapter 5: The Autonomy of the Will

* Kant emphasizes that morality requires autonomy of the will. Actions that are coerced or performed out of fear or hope for reward are not truly moral.
* Example: A person who obeys the law because they fear punishment is not acting morally, as their motive is based on self-interest rather than a commitment to duty.

Chapter 6: The Kingdom of Ends

* Kant envisions a moral community, or "kingdom of ends," where individuals are treated as rational beings and respect each other's rights and dignity.
* Example: A society that values justice, equality, and respect for individual rights is an example of a kingdom of ends.

Chapter 7: The Critique of Practical Reason

* Kant examines the foundations of morality and explores the limits of human reason in understanding moral truths.
* Example: Kant argues that we cannot fully understand the nature of the noumenal world, including the existence of God or the immortality of the soul, but we can still act morally based on reason and the demands of duty.